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Mortality and Immortality

Chapter 8

Learning Objectives

Describe the role of aesthetics and art in memorial structures.

Explain how tombs and memorials are used for political and social purposes.

Describe what we can learn about people and their cultures through tomb excavations.

Describe the way that burial rituals have evolved over the centuries.

Map 4

Map 4 The Assyrian and Persian Empires.

Introduction

Awareness of our mortality and the quest for immortality seem to be strictly human phenomenas.

Life, death, and the afterlife have been and continue to be intertwined with art making.

From ancient times to the present, humans make tombs and commemorative art to:

express cultural ideas and values about death and the afterlife.

closely tie religion to ritual burials.

promote political and social intentions.

visually establish power.

guarantee honor, fame, and/or glory.

Figure 8.1 (1 of 2)

8.1 Kane Kwel. Coca Pod Coffin, Ghana, Africa, 1970s. Wood and enamel paint, 7' 8" long.

Figure 8.1 (2 of 2)

Artwork related to mortality ranges from the grandeur and ambition of the Pyramids to the bright and personal quality of the Coca Pod Coffin.

Kwei’s workshop has produced personalized coffins for Ghana locals and people all around the world.

His coffins are designed to reflect the lifework and values of the deceased.

Figure 8.2 (1 of 2)

8.2 Colossal Statue of Constantine, fragments, c. 330 CE. Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome.

Figure 8.2 (2 of 2)

Early Christian art developed within the influence of Roman art.

The fragments of the Colossal Statue of Constantine clearly indicate Constantine’s power as a ruler.

EARLY TOMBS: MOUNDS AND MOUNTAINS

The earliest tombs were shaped like hills or mountains.

Egyptians built pyramids, which were geometric mountains.

Others built mounds like grass-covered hills with hidden burial chambers for elite members a society.

Ancient Burials

Funerary practices, religion, agriculture, and astronomy were often interrelated.

Figure 8.3 (1 of 2)

8.3 Newgrange, Neolithic, County Meath, Ireland, 3200 BCE.

Figure 8.3 (2 of 2)

Newgrange is oriented so that for 2 weeks near the winter solstice, morning sunlight radiates down the entire passage, illuminating one patterned stone in the burial chamber.

Over time, like other mounds, Newgrange eroded and blended into the natural landscape.

Figure 8.4 (1 of 2)

8.4 Great Pyramids, Gizeh, Egypt. From left, Menkaure, c. 2525–2475 BCE; Khafre, c. 2575–2525 BCE; Khufu, c. 2600–2550 BCE.

Figure 8.4 (2 of 2)

The Great Pyramids are tombs of the pharaohs, the rulers of Egypt believed to be the sons of the powerful Sun God, Re.

The pyramids are artificial mountains on a flat plane, part of a necropolis composed of tombs and mortuary temples.

The Great Pyramids have interior chambers that are quite small and, when opened in modern times, contained only empty stone crypts.

To thwart rampant grave robbing, later pharaohs were buried in chambers cut deep into the sides of mountains with hidden entrances.

FURNISHED TOMBS

Many cultures believed that the afterlife was similar to this life and that the dead continued to “live” in the tomb and needed furnishings like those used when they were alive.

Egyptian Tombs and Mortuary Temples

The Egyptians provided supreme examples of furnished tombs.

Ancient Egyptians believed a human soul possessed both a ba and a ka.

When humans take their last breath, the ba flies from the body and returns 70 days hungry and thirsty.

Tombs were filled with food and drink provisions to satisfy the needs of the ba.

The ka is the mental aspect of the human’s soul.

Provisions for the ka would include chairs, beds, chariots, models of servants, kitchen utensils, dishes, and simulated food (unlike the real food the ba required).

Riches of gold and silver have been found in more elaborate tombs.

Figure 8.5 (1 of 2)

8.5 Innermost Coffin of Tutankhamen, Thebes, Egypt, c. 1325 BCE. Gold inlaid with enamel and semiprecious stones, 6' 1" long. Egyptian Museum, Cairo.

Figure 8.5 (2 of 2)

Tutankhamen’s tomb was only partially plundered and was uncovered in 1922.

To preserve bodies and make them recognizable to their ba and ka, they were mummified and placed in sarcophagi that were painted and decorated to resemble the dead.

Tutankhamen’s innermost coffin is beaten gold weighing nearly 3/4 of a ton, inlaid with semiprecious stones.

The wings of Horus encircle the coffin and Tutankhamen holds the insignia of his rank.

The tomb also contained inlaid chests, gilt chairs, carved watchdogs, life-size guardian statues, and jewels.

Figure 8.6 (1 of 2)

8.6 Fowling Scene, wall painting from the tomb of Nebamun, Thebes, Egypt, c. 1400–1350 BCE. Paint on dry plaster, approx. 2' 8" high. British Museum, London.

Figure 8.6 (2 of 2)

In Egyptian tombs, wall paintings and carvings recreated the pleasures and labors of earthly existence.

The Fowling Scene shows an Egyptian noble in the afterlife hunting in the Nile River.

Pattern is important, as seen in the water ripples and the repeated image of birds.

Depth is rarely shown in ancient Egyptian paintings, so everything is distributed vertically or horizontally.

The noble is shown in the formal manner reserved for exalted persons: head, shoulders, legs, and feet in profile; eyes and shoulders frontal.

Size was an important indicator of rank, so the nobleman is larger than his wife and daughter.

Figure 8.7 (1 of 2)

8.7 Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut, Deir el-Bahri, Egypt, c. 490–1460 BCE.

Figure 8.7 (2 of 2)

When high-ranking Egyptians began to hide tombs in hillsides, the funerary temples were enlarged and emphasized, as shown in Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple.

The temple was a monument to the greatness of Egypt’s woman pharaoh.

The temple housed 200 statues of her, painted reliefs showing her divine birth, coronation, military victories, and other exploits.

After death, Hatshepsut’s portraits were defaced, records of her rule obscured.

Etruscan Tombs

The Etruscans were an ancient people who buried their dead in earthen mounds furnished for the afterlife similar to the Egyptians.

In contrast to the tombs of the Egyptians, Etruscan tombs were not grand monuments to powerful rulers, but emphasized sociability and the pleasures of living.

Figure 8.8 (1 of 2)

8.8 Sarcophagus with Reclining Couple, from a cemetery near Cerveteri, Etruria (Italy), c. 520 BCE. Painted terracotta, 3' 9 1/2" tall. Museo Nationale di Villa Giulia, Rome.

Figure 8.8 (2 of 2)

In this freestanding sculpture, a couple recline together enjoying a banquet on their coffin.

The wife and husband are shown at the same scale reflecting the fact that Etruscan women had more rights than women in most other cultures.

Their bodies are somewhat flattened and unformed from the waist down.

Despite these unnatural features, the wife and husband still give the impression of alert liveliness, health, and vigor.

Figure 8.9 (1 of 2)

8.9 Banqueters and Musicians, Etruria (Italy), c. 480–470 BCE. Mural painting from the Tomb of the Leopards in a cemetery near Tarquinia, Etruria (Italy), c. 480–470 BCE.

Figure 8.9 (2 of 2)

Earthen-mound tombs often had several modest-sized rooms laid out much like houses.

Etruscan tomb art emphasizes the pleasures of feasting, music, and dancing.

Tomb walls were covered with paintings like Banqueters and Musicians.

Banqueters recline on couches while servants bring them food and drink.

Funeral Complex of Shi Huangdi

Ying Cheng became the ruler of the Qin state in 259 BCE at thirteen and assumed the title Shi Huangdi.

Shi Huangdi built himself a large, lavish underground funeral palace, one of the most extensive tombs ever constructed.

A brutal ruler, Shi Huangdi accumulated amazing power, ruthlessly homogenizing Chinese culture and eradicating all opposition to his rule.

Figure 8.10 (1 of 2)

8.10 Soldiers from Pit 1, Shaanxi, China, 221–206 BCE. Painted ceramic; average figure height, 5' 9".

Figure 8.10 (2 of 2)

In 1974, peasants digging a well accidentally discovered the buried army of 6,000 life-size clay soldiers guarding the palace complex.

Since then, archaeologists have excavated and restored the terra-cotta army; the tomb is mostly untouched.

The soldiers are arranged in eleven columns, four soldiers abreast in nine of the columns.

Torsos are hollow, while solid legs provide a weighty bottom for support.

The bodies are standardized: frontal, stiff, and anatomically simplified.

There are four kinds of soldiers—cavalry, archers, lancers, and hand-to-hand fighters—all at least 4 inches shorter than the commanders.

Figure 8.11 (1 of 2)

8.11 Warrior, General, Shaanxi, China, 221–206 BCE. Painted ceramic, life-size. Cultural Relics Publishing House, Beijing.

Figure 8.11 (2 of 2)

Certain features of the statues, such as hands, were mass-produced in molds, but every face is different and sculpted with great skill and sensitivity.

The hair is shown with detailed, individualized knotting and braiding, typical of Chinese infantry of the time.

Royal Tombs of the Moche Civilization

Moche civilization extended for more than 400 miles along the Pacific Ocean in what is now Peru.

The wealth of Moche society’s reflected in their burials, from simple shallow pits to elaborate burial chambers on pyramids.

Warrior-priests ruled the Moche civilization, judging by their richly furnished graves.

The main reason for Moche society warfare was to capture prisoners for sacrificial ceremonies.

A class of skilled artisans worked full-time to create gold and silver metalwork for elite burials.

Figure 8.12 (1 of 2)

8.12 Mannequin dressed in replicas of some of the objects found in Tomb 1, Royal Tombs of Sipán. Moche civilization, Peru, c. 300. Fowler Museum of Cultural Heritage, University of California at Los Angeles.

Figure 8.12 (2 of 2)

Tomb 1 contained several sets of warrior-priest ceremonial gear.

This mannequin is dressed in replicas of some of the objects found in the tomb:

a cloth covered with gilded platelets

shell beads over his wrists and shoulders

a striking helmet

a nose plate suspended from a hole in the nasal septum

crescent-shaped bells hang from his waist

Figure 8.13 (1 of 2)

8.13 Peanut Necklace, from Tomb 1 of the Royal Tombs of Sipán, Moche civilization, Peru, c. 300. Gold and silver necklace, 1' 8" diameter. Museo Archeológico Nacional Bruning de Lambayeque, Peru.

Figure 8.13 (2 of 2)

This necklace consists of with ten gold and ten silver “beads” that resemble peanuts.

The peanut may have been a ceremonial food or a food of honor.

The Moche used gold and silver symmetrically.

Viking Ship Burial

The Vikings were maritime raiders from Scandinavia.

By burying ships in their tombs, they reveal how important sea travel was to their civilization.

Figure 8.14 (1 of 2)

8.14 Viking Ship, from the Oseberg ship burial, Norway, early ninth century. Oak, 65' long. Viking Ship Museum, Oslo.

Figure 8.14 (2 of 2)

The Viking Ship was probably the private vessel of a wealthy family.

This ship burial was the tomb of a high-ranking woman.

The graceful curves of the low, wide ship culminate in tall spiral posts at stem and stern; the front is carved like a coiled snake.

Other wooden objects were found in the burial, including beds, carts, and sledges, with carvings of unidentifiable beasts.

DEVELOPMENT OF CEMETERIES AND GRAVE MONUMENTS (1 of 2)

During the first millennium BCE, mound tombs were replaced by funerary art and architecture.

Tombs became commemorative structures instead of furnished homes for the afterlife.

Ancient Greeks developed the earliest commemorative funerary architecture.

The most common Greek monuments were:

small columns supporting vases, urns, small statues.

life-size freestanding figures of young men or women.

relief carvings on stone slabs.

DEVELOPMENT OF CEMETERIES AND GRAVE MONUMENTS (2 of 2)

Roman family tombs and mausoleums were built outside of the city in several styles:

altar-tombs

towers

modified Greek temples

diminutive Egyptian pyramids

combinations of these

Figure 8.15 (1 of 2)

8.15 Grave Stele of Hegeso, from the Dipylon Cemetery, Athens, c. 410–400 BCE. Marble relief, 5' 2" high. National Archeological Museum, Athens.

Figure 8.15 (2 of 2)

Greek grave markers often depicted quiet, everyday moments.

This stele depicts the deceased woman with a servant bringing her jewelry.

Grave markers such as this were once colorfully painted.

Figure 8.16 (1 of 2)

8.16 Funerary Relief of a Circus Official, Ostia, 110–130. Marble relief, approx. 1' 8” high. Vatican Museum, Rome.

Figure 8.16 (2 of 2)

This relief was produced for a working-class person’s tomb.

The largest figure (on the left) is the official himself holding hands with his wife. In Roman art, the handshake symbolized marriage.

The wife is smaller indicating she is of lesser status, and she stands on a pedestal as a sign that she died before him.

The official and his wife are crowded to the side to give space for the Circus Maximus.

The deceased may have been a race official, or a charioteer himself, in his younger days.

BURIAL IN PLACES OF WORSHIP

In some cultures, a preference arose for being buried in holy sites.

This practice could be a sign of either religious devotion or the desire for prestige.

The most sanctified places for burial were reserved for those with the greatest wealth, power, or religious standing.

Christian Burials (1 of 2)

Early Christians buried their dead rather than cremating them because they believe in resurrection.

Vast underground networks called catacombs were dug out of tufa around the city.

The catacombs became sanctified places where:

martyrs were buried.

fugitives hid from the Romans.

worship services were conducted.

Around 313, Christianity became the official religion of Rome, and large churches were constructed with tombs located inside them.

Christian Burials (2 of 2)

Christian church burials were periodically banned, as tombs rapidly overtook church interiors.

The rich and powerful continued to be buried in the churches as the churches depended on the donations that accompanied the burial.

The poor and working classes were buried outside in cemeteries and churchyards.

Figure 8.17 (1 of 2)

8.17 Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, interior, Ravenna, c. 425.

Figure 8.17 (2 of 2)

The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia was originally attached to a church, now in ruins.

The original purpose of this building is not known, but its mosaics give us a good idea of the style of imagery and decoration at this time.

On one panel, sheep represent the flock protected by Jesus, the early Christian mosaics show the influence of Roman secular art.

Figure 8.18 (1 of 2)

8.18 Gianlorenzo Bernini. Baldacchino, St. Peter’s, Rome, 1624–1633. Gilded bronze, 100' high.

Figure 8.18 (2 of 2)

The tomb of St. Peter was the focal point of a new church, marked by a bronze canopy, called a baldacchino, mounted over St. Peter’s tomb.

The baldacchino:

is taller than an eight-story building.

recalls the cloth canopies that covered tombs of early martyrs.

has curving columns that recall those Constantine placed in Old St. Peter’s.

has vine-covered, twisting columns which seem to support the canopy as if weightless.

Figure 8.19 (1 of 2)

8.19 Chapel of Henry VII, interior (toward east) Westminster Abbey, London, 1503–1519.

Figure 8.19 (2 of 2)

Built in English Perpendicular style, the Chapel of Henry VII is a variation on the Gothic style.

The height and delicate patterning make a fitting symbol of royal power.

A carved wooden screen encloses the tombs of Henry VII and his wife which have bronze effigies atop them.

The tombs are directly behind the altar, the most venerable location in the chapel.

Westminster Abbey continued to be used for royal burials until the 18th century, also housing tombs of statesmen, military leaders, artists, and poets.

Islamic Mausoleums

The wealthy and powerful in Islamic societies were sometimes buried in mausoleums adjoining mosques.

Figure 8.20 (1 of 2)

8.20 Taj Mahal, Agra, India, 1632–1654.

Figure 8.20 (2 of 2)

The most famous Islamic mausoleum, the Taj Mahal, was built by the Indian ruler of the Mughal Empire, Shah Jahan, to honor his beloved wife.

It sits at the north end of an expansive walled garden which symbolizes Paradise.

Canals divide the 35-acre garden into four equal squares, with a reflecting pool in the center.

The building is a compact, symmetrical, centrally planned structure surrounded by four minarets and a central huge dome.

The Taj Mahal seems billowing and light and seems to float.

The walls are lavishly decorated with inlaid semiprecious stone floral designs and carvings.

RELIQUARIES

In some religions, bones, tissues, and possessions of deceased holy persons are kept and venerated in reliquaries (small shrines).

Relics was popular in medieval Europe where pilgrims would visit churches to ask special favors in the presence of the shrines.

Reliquaries were expensive to produce because relics were precious, and the shrines were often made with precious metals and stones.

Reliquaries were related as much to the jeweler’s craft as to sculpture.

Figure 8.21 (1 of 2)

8.21 Reliquary Arm, Mosan (Belgium), c. 1230. Silver over oak; hand: bronze-gilt; appliqué plaques: silver-gilt, niello, and cabochon stones; 2' 1 1/2" × 6 1/2" × 4". The Cloisters Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.

Figure 8.21 (2 of 2)

In this case, the reliquary contains an arm bone fragment from an unknown holy person.

Clergy used it to bless the faithful or heal the ill.

This reliquary shows scenes from the lives of Saints Peter and Paul.

It is decorated with silver, gold, and gemstones.

Figure 8.22 (1 of 2)

8.22 Mbulu Ngulu (Reliquary Guardian Figure), from the Kotaregion of Gabon, likely 19th or 20th century. Wood, metal.

Figure 8.22 (2 of 2)

Reliquaries from Africa often held the remains of venerated ancestors.

This reliquary was placed on a bag or basket that contained the skulls and long bones of ancestors.

Most African religions honor ancestors through ritual and sculptures because the guardian was believed to protect the relics from evil and helped obtain food, health, or fertility from these ancestors.

This guardian figure and others like it were constructed over flat wooden armatures and then covered with sheets and wires of brass or copper.

These sculptures were extremely influential in the development of 20th-century European modern art.

MODERN COMMEMORATIVE ART

Commemorative art from the past two centuries varies and includes:

monuments addressing personal loss.

memorials for groups.

monuments for political leaders.

Monuments:

express loss.

preserve memory.

transform the experience of death.

Modern Cemeteries

Between the 18th and 19th centuries, cemeteries in Europe reached a crisis point.

Expanding cities began to overtake neglected churchyards, which became overcrowded, unhealthy, and polluted.

Civil authorities removed control of burials from churches and established large, suburban cemeteries that buried the deceased regardless of religion.

Figure 8.23 (1 of 2)

8.23 Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris, France, opened 1804.

Figure 8.23 (2 of 2)

Northern Europeans favored a picturesque cemetery like the Père Lachaise Cemetery on the outskirts of Paris.

Its design was influenced by Romanticism, a major art and cultural movement of the 19th century emphasizing a return to a simpler way of life.

The cemetery was laid out with meandering paths on a hilly site with massive trees.

Families often constructed elaborate structures, urns, columns, and obelisks running the gamut of artistic styles.

Figure 8.24 (1 of 2)

8.24 John Everett Millais. Ophelia, England, 1852. Oil on canvas, 2' 6" × 3' 8". Tate, London.

Figure 8.24 (2 of 2)

Ophelia is contemporary with some of the monuments in Père Lachaise Cemetery.

A character in the Shakespearean play Hamlet, Ophelia is incapacitated from grief and later drowns falling from a tree.

Ophelia’s pose and flower-strewn dress already suggest the casket but lack the gritty details of madness.

This painting’s deep color, lushness, detail, and delicacy exhibit the same picturesque nature apparent in Père Lachaise Cemetery.

Contemporary Memorial Art and Practices

Today art and rituals of death serve many needs:

social

political

personal

Figure 8.25 (1 of 2)

8.25 Diego Rivera. Día de Los Muertos, detail showing the city fiesta, Mexico, 1923. Fresco. South wall, Court of the Fiestas, Ministry of Education, Mexico City.

Figure 8.25 (2 of 2)

The Day of the Dead is a feast day celebrated in Mexico and parts of the U.S.

Public marketplaces are sites for parades and celebrations.

Private homes honor the deceased by erecting altars containing incense, pictures of the dead, and the deceased favorite foods.

Families may spend the night at the graveyard decorating gravesites and burning candles.

Diego’s Día de Los Muertos shows:

urban and rural observances.

satirical skeletons hang in the background: a priest, a general, a capitalist, and a laborer.

food vendors and children in skull masks.

the carnival atmosphere of the day.

Figure 8.26 (1 of 2)

8.26 Helmet Mask (Tatanua), Northern New Ireland, Papua New Guinea, 19th century. Wood, paint, natural fibers, and opercula shells; 1' 3 1/4" × 9 1/2" × 1'. Museum of Fine Arts, Houston.

Figure 8.26 (2 of 2)

Villagers in New Ireland and Papua New Guinea hold memorial festivals for recently deceased clan members.

Both the festivals and the sculptures carved for the occasions are called malanggan.

Honoring the dead requires a great expenditure of time, effort, and wealth, stimulating the local economy and creating strong alliances among villages and clans.

Malanggan also include initiation rites for young men and still occur today.

The Helmet Mask shown here is used most frequently in ritual dances.

The masks are made of painted wood, vegetable fibers, and shells, and the top crest resembles men’s traditional hairstyles.

Figure 8.27 (1 of 2)

8.27 Mausoleum of Mao Zedong, Tiananmen Square, Beijing, latter half of the 20th century.

Figure 8.27 (2 of 2)

The Mausoleum of Mao Zedong functions commemoratively and politically.

It not only houses the body of the leader of the Communist Chinese revolution but also asserts the authority of the Communist government after centuries of rule.

The major axis of Beijing runs north-south, and official buildings, palaces, public grounds, city gates, and the Imperial Palace were placed along this axis signifying the authority of the imperial dynasties.

In front of the Forbidden City is Tiananmen Square, a large ceremonial space.

The mausoleum is deliberately located in the square, on the north-south axis, as the Communist leaders claim to be rightful successors to the emperors.

Figure 8.28 (1 of 2)

8.28 AIDS Memorial Quilt, displayed on the Mall in Washington, D.C., October 11, 1996. Organized by the Names Project, San Francisco.

Figure 8.28 (2 of 2)

The AIDS Memorial Quilt is a commemorative work with personal and political impact.

The quilt is composed of thousands of 3- by 6-foot panels about the size of a twin-bed blanket, which would cover the body of one person who died from AIDS.

Each panel is decorated by family or friends, sometimes with only initials but often elaborately, with photos, memorabilia, or details of a life.

Most people contributing quilt pieces have no art training.

Its proximity to the White House and government buildings in this photo means that the disease was recognized publicly as a crisis and a tragedy by the U.S. government.

Figure 8.29 (1 of 2)

8.29 John Bennett, Gustavo Bonevardi, Richard Nash Gould, Paul Myoda, Julian LaVerdiere, and Paul Marantz. Tribute in Light, New York City, 2002. High-power lamps. World Trade Center Memorial at Ground Zero.

Figure 8.29 (2 of 2)

Tribute in Light projects two powerful beams of light into the night sky where the twin towers of the World Trade Center once stood.

These temporary “towers” appeared architectonic because each was composed of forty-four high-powered lamps that, combined, resembled a 3-D column with fluting.

The light beams reference hope, but because they are immaterial, they also recall the transitory nature and vulnerability of earthly things.

They have been recreated every September 11 since 2002.

Figure 8.30 (1 of 2)

8.30 Studio Daniel Libeskind. New World Trade Center, during construction, expected completion in 2015. In the foreground is Reflecting Absence, part of the National September 11 Memorial and Museum, designed by Michael Arad and Peter Walker, 2012.

Figure 8.30 (2 of 2)

The World Trade Center complex is being rebuilt and includes the large Freedom Tower—a tapering, twisting skyscraper topped by an openwork cable superstructure and a spire.

At 1,776-feet tall, the tower commemorates the year of the Declaration of Independence and symbolizes the spirit of the U.S.

In the middle of the complex is a tree-covered plaza, a permanent memorial, and a museum dedicated to those who died September 11, 2001.

Reflecting Absence, the permanent memorial, consists of two sunken reflecting pools that mark the footprints of the old towers and bear inscriptions of the victims’ names.

Discussion Questions

What can you learn about a culture by studying its tombs?

How are tombs and memorials used for political and social purposes?

What visual elements are part of the funeral rituals you are familiar with?

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