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Chapter6.ppt

Chapter 6

Long-Term Memory: Structure

Some Questions to Consider

  • How does damage to the brain affect the ability to remember what has happened in the past and the ability to form new memories of ongoing experiences?
  • How are memories for personal experiences, like what you did last summer, different from memories for facts, like the capital of your state?
  • How do the different types of memory interact in our everyday experience?
  • How has memory loss been depicted in popular films?

Long-Term Memory

  • “Archive” of information about past events and knowledge learned
  • Works closely with working memory
  • Storage stretches from a few moments ago to as far back as one can remember
  • More recent memories are more detailed

Long-Term Memory

Serial Position Effect

  • Murdoch (1962) studied the distinction between short-term and long-term memories using the serial position curve
  • He asked participants to read a stimulus list (usually a list of words), and write down all the words they could remember.

Serial Position Curve

  • He found that memory is better for the stimuli presented at beginning which he called the primacy effect
  • Believed this was because you have more time to rehearse info presented at the beginning, and it is more likely to enter LTM

Serial Position Curve

  • Memory is also better for stimuli presented at end of list which he called the recency effect
  • He hypothesized that this was because the Stimuli at the end of the list are still in STM
  • Try it out:

Coding in Long-Term Memory

  • Visual and auditory encoding in short- and long-term memory
  • Some things are stored as visual memories and some as auditory.
  • It’s easier to remember words of things you can visualize like “cat” as opposed to “hope”.
  • It’s easier to remember words when they don’t sound similar to each other.
  • Semantic encoding in short- and long-term memory (Wickens et al., 1976)
  • If you look at group B to the right, interference is caused when fruits are surprisingly presented after a series of professions.
  • The meaning and relatedness of words affects or short and long-term memories.

Coding in Long-Term Memory

Coding in Long-Term Memory

  • Semantic encoding (memory for words) in long-term memory
  • One way to test semantic coding is to look at recognition memory: how well can you identify a previously encountered stimulus
  • Sachs (1967)
  • Asked participants to read paragraphs. After a delay asked them to choose which sentence was written directly as an original sentence in the paragraph.
  • The results showed that specific wording is forgotten but the general meaning of the sentence can be remembered.
  • I always tell students that to avoid plagiarism, they need to read their source and then put it away and not look at it again while summarizing a paper or article.
  • It is almost impossible to remember and rewrite exact sentences from the paper.

Locating Memory in the Brain

  • Neuropsychology
  • The hippocampus is responsible for one’s ability to encode new long-term memories
  • We know this from several amazing case studies. Watch the videos for more information.
  • Henry Molaison (H.M.) – hippocampus removed to treat his severe epilepsy
  • Clive Wearing- lost his memory from encephalitis

Types of Long-Term Memory

  • Episodic: memory for personal events
  • First day of kindergarten
  • Wedding day
  • Graduation
  • We generally have no episodic memories of things that happened before age 2
  • Semantic: facts and knowledge not drawn from personal experience.
  • Christopher Columbus discovered America
  • George Washington was the first president.

Types of Long-Term Memory

  • Episodic involves mental time travel
  • No guarantee of accuracy
  • Semantic does not involve mental time travel
  • General knowledge
  • Episodic and semantic show a double dissociation

Separation of Episodic and Semantic Memories

  • K.C. damaged hippocampus in a motorcycle accident
  • No episodic memory
  • He cannot relive any events of his past
  • Semantic memory remained intact
  • He can remember general information about the past;
  • This indicates that episodic and semantic memory are two different processes that have different origins in the brain.

Separation of Episodic and
Semantic Memories

  • The opposite can also happen in which semantic memory is impaired but episodic memory is preserved
  • Italian woman
  • Had encephalitis
  • Impaired semantic memory
  • Couldn’t remember the meanings of words
  • Couldn’t recognize people
  • Episodic memory for past events was preserved
  • Could remember things she had done herself

Separation of Episodic and Semantic Memories

Separation of Episodic and Semantic Memories

  • Evidence from brain-imaging experiments indicates that retrieving episodic and semantic memories activate different areas of the brain.
  • Alzheimer’s disease greatly affects episodic memory
  • Semantic dementia tends to affect semantic memory
  • People still remember their own past but forget facts

Interactions Between Episodic and Semantic Memories

  • Episodic can be lost, leaving only semantic
  • Acquiring knowledge may start as episodic but then “fade” to semantic
  • Semantic can be enhanced if associated with episodic
  • Autobiographical memory: memory of specific experiences, includes semantic and episodic
  • Personal semantic memory: semantic memories that have personal significance
  • Can influence what we experience (episodic) by determining what we attend to

The Effect of Time

  • Typical research findings are that forgetting increases with longer intervals from the original encoding
  • Remember/Know procedure
  • Remember if a stimulus is familiar and the circumstance under which it was encountered?
  • Know if the stimulus is familiar but don’t remember experiencing it earlier?
  • Don’t remember the stimulus at all
  • Semanticization of remote memories
  • Loss of episodic details for memories of long-ago events

Types of Long-Term Memory

  • Explicit memory (episodic and semantic) are conscious, in that we are aware that learning is taking place.
  • Implicit memory is not conscious.
  • memory that unconsciously influences behavior
  • Repetition priming
  • Procedural memory (often called “muscle memory”)
  • Memory for processes like riding a bicycle, playing the piano, driving a car, tying your shoes
  • Classical conditioning

Types of Long-Term Memory

Types of Long-Term Memory

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Types of Long-Term Memory

  • Implicit/non-declarative: unconscious memory
  • Procedural (skill) memory
  • Priming: previous experience changes response without conscious awareness
  • Explicit/declarative: unconscious memory
  • Episodic: personal events/episodes
  • Semantic: facts, knowledge

Implicit Memory: Procedural Memory

  • Skill memory: memory for actions
  • No memory of where or when learned
  • Perform procedures without being consciously aware of how to do them
  • People who cannot form new long-term memories can still learn new skills (e.g., H.M.)
  • Clive Wearing, a famous musician and conductor, lost hislong-term memory but could still play the piano as well as ever.

Repetition Priming

  • Presentation of one stimulus affects performance on that stimulus when it is presented again
  • Graf and coworkers (1985)
  • Texted explicit memory and implicit memory
  • Tested three groups

Amnesia patients with Korsakoff’s syndrome

  • Korsakoff’s syndrome is long-term memory loss due to alcoholism.

Patients without amnesia being treated for alcoholism

Patients with amnesia who had no history of alcoholism

Repetition Priming

Implicit Memory in Everyday Experience

  • Perfect and Askew (1994)
  • Propaganda effect
  • We are more likely to rate statements read or heard before as being true even if they are not true.
  • Implications for advertisements

Implicit Memory: Classical Conditioning

  • Pairing a neutral stimulus with a reflexive response
  • We and other animals are not intentionally learning. It is a subconscious, reflexive response.
  • It is also used in advertising, to influence our feelings about products.

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